Kindness Paradox

Discuss Benjamin Franklin's claim that "he that has once done you a kindness will be more ready to do you another than he whom you yourself have obliged."

Thoughts and links:
I chose to do this topic for my second blog because I'm very interested in the concept of Karma but also what motivates us to do things for/to others. While this statement isn't exactly discussing Karma, it's definitely related in my opinion. I think that hate breeds hate and love breeds love and I'm reassured of this every single day. Acts of kindness, generally, are embraced positively, whereas harmful acts are not. These are just some general and beginning thoughts for now but I've found some links as well which I hope are of interest to you. Enjoy!

~The Benjamin Franklin Effect
-http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/ben_franklin_effect.htm
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Franklin_Effect
-http://psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=pto-4195.html&fromMod=popular_relationships

~Karma
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karma
-http://www.buddhanet.net/fundbud9.htm

Concept Map: Prejudice, Stereotyping & Aggression

Blog 1: The Influence of Nature and Nurture on Prejudice, Stereotyping and Aggression

­­­­­­Abstract

To help understand the relationship between prejudice, stereotyping and aggression, ideas associated with both nature and nurture were explored. The aim of this essay was to explain how these concepts were connected. In doing this, the author began by discussing prejudice and continued thereafter with, stereotyping and aggression. Throughout the essay, references have been made to two key sources, The Australian Eye and Ghosts of Rwanda, both emphasising and depicting how these concepts are related. A concept map (see Appendix B) was also used to develop ideas.

Introduction

Prejudice, stereotyping and aggression appear to have both natural and environmental origins. While each of these concepts is closely associated with one another, it is important to understand the reasons why they exist when analysing their relationship.

Nature & Prejudice

The influence of nature on prejudice is salient. Jane Elliot’s experiment and documentary, Australian Eye (Cullen & Elliot, 2002), conveyed an informative message about prejudice and discrimination to the participants involved and was based primarily on eye colour, but also physical appearance. Brown-eyed participants were given “superiority” over blue-eyed participants and this was enforced by discrimination committed towards the blue-eyes by taking away the luxury of chairs and freedom of speech (Zimbardo, 1994). As a result of this study, many have realised, from the experience, what it is like to be victimised based on purely superficial reasoning by fellow human beings. Naturally, many people have pre-conceived biases, attitudes and prejudices that they are not necessarily aware of (Science Daily, 2005). For instance, fear of difference in terms of skin colour and facial features may have developed innately to ensure survival (Science Daily). As a result, prejudices towards certain racial groups are distinguished and maintained for no given reason other than that a race appears dissimilar to another (Science Daily). This segregation continues around the globe and to some extent, keeping in mind theories of natural history and evolution, probably always will.

Nurture & Prejudice

When prejudice becomes environmentally influenced however, it becomes unclear as to how much impact society, culture, friends and family have on beliefs, attitudes and prejudices. One way to investigate this concept is to examine the extent to which non-human animals are prejudiced. Animals do not appear to practice racism; however, closer exploration shows otherwise. Similarly to humans, chimpanzees hold prejudices towards others of their own species (Cole, 2007). One study showed that when an elder female chimpanzee was introduced to a group of chimpanzees in a different American state, she expressed her disgust for them through the use of sign language, calling them “black bugs” (Cole). This study emphasises that prejudices develop based on a combination of heredity and environmental experiences.

Nature & Stereotyping

As a result of prejudice, stereotypes often develop. The extent to why they occur again appears to be affected by natural and environmental influences. Stereotypes are generated by grouping people with similar traits or characteristics together and, unfortunately, often work against the stereotyped group (Zimbardo, 1994). In the human race, stereotypes may include black people, gays and lesbians, people with disabilities, certain religious groups and any group that is easy to categorise based on common characteristics (Correll, Park, Judd & Wittenbrink, 2002). Stereotypes occur naturally to help sort complex information into more simplified groups (Correll et al). Trees are generally green-leafed and have brown trunks and branches; books have a spine, a back and front cover and pages in between. Everything in the world, both living and non-living has a certain place, appearance and function (Bloom, 2001). In effect, knowledge of these physical and functional details about something helps us understand its use efficiently and, in theory, accurately (Bloom).

However, over-generalising can have repercussions and these consequences can be extremely detrimental to the categorised group. Australian Eye is again a good example of how stereotypes are formed based on common physical characteristics (Cullen & Elliot, 2002). Separating people by eye colour not only gave dominance to one group over the other, but also enforced each group’s collective traits (Cullen & Elliot). The brown-eyes were “confident”, “powerful” and “threatening” whereas the blue-eyes were “intimidated”, “confronted” and “weak” (Cullen & Elliot). When forcibly belittled, people experience increased levels of negative emotion towards their oppressors (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Adversely, this negativity is often mirrored by the more superior group, only perpetuating the cycle of prejudice and stereotyping (Baumeister & Bushman). The racial history between white and black people is a prime example of this. Because people of a specific race, white Anglo-Saxons for instance, are often raised in communities of primarily one dominant race, availability heuristics are formed (Baumeister & Bushman). This means that people become accustomed to what they consider normal and anything that differs is considered quite unusual, strange and in some cases, frightening. Applying this to the example of racism, whites may wrongly stereotype black people because of their differences.

Nurture & Stereotyping

While stereotypes are to a large extent naturally occurring, the degree to which they are socially influenced is also notable (Duncombe, 2007). In Western culture, people are often characterised into groups by colour, personality types, body types, occupations, social class and political preference among others (Duncombe). This grouping may sometimes be helpful and may assist like-minded people to achieve a common goal. Members of a weight-loss club, for example, may support each other in achieving their ideal physical bodies. However, the harmful effects of stereotyping often come into play when minority groups in society are portrayed and labelled negatively (Duncombe). As a result, stereotyping of this kind can lead to the active discrimination of individuals simply for fitting into a certain social category (Duncombe). Ageism, for example, is becoming increasingly present in many workplaces because of negative stereotypes related to a person’s age (Woolfe, 1998). Sexism is also a present issue in many different cultures, brought about by how males and females are expected to act within their environment (Russell, 1997). Racism is perhaps the most recognisable type of stereotyping throughout the world, with prejudice and discrimination occurring purely based on an individual’s ethnic and cultural background and nationality (Russell).

While these stereotypes are simply a few among many, they are each generated by similar themes. One is that the inequalities are produced by a constant struggle for power. In ageism, the young appear to have power over those who are older (Duncombe, 2007). Women are more often than not the inferior group in relation to sexism and generally, white people are more powerful than blacks (Duncombe). The other common theme is that humans and non-humans animals are afraid of what appears different (Duncombe). To some extent this fear is learned from experience but there is also a valid portion of which is innate (Duncombe). Regardless, this fear of difference can result in the oppression and discrimination of others through acts of aggression.

Nature & Aggression

The phenomenon of aggression can too be analysed from both a natural and an environmental perspective. Aggression obviously serves some natural purpose otherwise it would not exist (Lorenz, 1963). Animals may act aggressively to protect their young, others may fight territorially to ensure a place to live and thrive. In evolutionary terms, many of the reasons for aggression in nature ultimately come down to survival (Lorenz). Between-species, aggression may be present on both sides of the fight (Auk, 1975); the attacker, an eagle, may have to approach with caution if it were to prey on a snake, for example. Within-species, aggression also exists, often because of a need for dominance and power in a social hierarchy (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007). Two male baboons may cause serious injury to one another in a battle for their desired mate. The more powerful and dominant of the two animals will tend to achieve their goal provided that they are not presented with any further challengers (Encyclopædia Britannica). Humans, naturally, are not so different except for the fact that they have the ability to think critically and wisely about the consequences of their actions should they choose to (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).

Nurture & Aggression

It is here that the impact of society and culture on aggression are of interest. In humans, aggressive behaviour towards others appears to be heavily influenced by many social factors. This behaviour may occur physically or verbally and seems to be highly correlated with negative emotions such as anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and general psychological distress (Stucke & Sporer, 2002). One study showed that narcissism and self-concept clarity were high predictors of an individual’s level of aggression (Stucke & Sporer). As a result, some may abuse drugs and alcohol, further aggravating this cycle of aggression and leading to additional destructive and maladaptive behaviour (Pihl & Peterson, 1995). Drugs and alcohol often lower inhibitions and contribute to a range of crimes including physical and sexual assault and domestic violence (Pihl & Peterson). Social theorists have also commented on the significance of modelling, a concept which describes how humans (and animals) mimic behaviour (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). The most famous example of this idea is in an experiment conducted by Bandura in 1973 (Baumeister & Bushman). Children copied the violent behaviour, such as kicking, punching and slapping, that they saw performed by adults against a plastic doll called Bobo (Baumeister & Bushman). This showed that aggression is sometimes produced out of mere exposure.

The extreme of aggressive behaviour is unfortunately war and in some cases, genocide. Ghosts of Rwanda (2004), a documentary about the mass killing of more than 800,000 Rwandans in 1994, demonstrated the catastrophic capabilities of human beings. Driven by hate, propaganda and history, the Hutus tribe committed atrocious acts of torture, rape and murder against fellow Africans, simply for belonging to a different tribe, the Tutsis. This example of aggression is extreme, but common and understated to the point where most of the Western world has become desensitised to its reality (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). While aggression and violence is generally unfavourable in many cultures and criminals are punished, antisocial behaviour continues on a daily basis. Ghosts of Rwanda depicts this notion very accurately and illustrates that there is “such potential for good and such potential for evil in each one of us” (2004). War, and aggression, it seems are a part of the human race and whether driven by nature or nurture, appear inevitable.

The connection between prejudice, stereotyping and aggression is strong. While they are all influenced both naturally and environmentally, these three concepts also, in turn, influence each other. Prejudice may lead to stereotypes which may lead to aggression. No matter the order of their relationship however, they are intertwined nonetheless.

References

Barker, G. (Producer, writer & director). (2004). Ghosts of Rwanda [Motion picture]. (Available from Frontline for WBGH Educational Foundation, Boston).

Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social psychology and human nature. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Bloom, H. (2001). Adventures for the mind: a cyberportal to science, art and history based on Howard Bloom’s books The Lucifer Principle and the Global Brain. Retrieved September 20, 2007 from http://howardbloom.net/

Cole, J. (2001). Beyond prejudice: Our connection to others, the earth and our future. Retrieved September 20, 2007 from http://www.beyondprejudice.com/connect.html

Cullen, P. (Producer & director). Elliot, J (Writer). (2002). The Australian Eye [Motion picture]. (Available from Angry Eye Productions, Australia).

Duncombe, S. (2007). [Review of the book Typecasting: On the arts & sciences of human inequality. New York: International Journal of Communication. Retrieved September 20, 2007 from http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/133/65

Lorenz, K. (1963/1966). On aggression. New York: Harcourt

Prejudice is hard-wired into the human brain, says ASU study. (2005, May 25). Retrieved September 19, 2007 from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050525105357.htm

Russell, V. (1997). Racism and sexism – A collective struggle: A minority woman’s point of view. Retrieved September 20, 2007 from http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/wlm/racesex/

Social behaviour in animals. (2007). Retrieved September 20, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-48603

Stucke, T, S. & Sporer, S, L. (2002). When a Grandiose Self-Image Is Threatened: Narcissism and Self-Concept Clarity as Predictors of Negative Emotions and Aggression Following Ego-Threat. Journal of Personality 70, 509-532. Abstract retrieved September 20, 2007 from Blackwell Synergy: http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-6494.05015

The Auk, 2, 584-585. (1975). Retrieved September 20, 2007 from http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v092n03/p0584-p0585.pdf

Woolfe, L. M. (1998). Ageism: An Introduction. Retrieved September 20, 2007 from http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/ageism.html

Zimbardo, P. G. (1992). Psychology and life. (13^th ed.). New York: Harper Collins Publishers.

Appendix A: Other links

Prejudice:

http://www.understandingprejudice.org

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice

Stereotyping:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype

Aggression:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression

Appendix B: Concept Map

Appendix C: Self-Assessment

Theory:
The theoretical literature I have found has been relevant to the structure of the essay. I have found social psychological theories that help to explain the concepts analysed and have only used them as necessary. There were times where I could have elaborated more on the theories presented, however I chose not to for the sake of focusing more intently on the development of the content of the essay.

Research:
I feel I have researched this topic well and found a wide range of resources arguing for both sides of the nature versus nurture debate. I have utilised this material to explore and support my own ideas and further conceptualise how prejudice, stereotyping and aggression link together.

Written Expression:
Throughout the essay I have attempted to make every sentence relevant to answering the question. I have used my own ideas and have presented them using appropriate language and with my own style of writing. I believe the essay flows quite smoothly in most places, however this could be improved upon. I think it’s generally quite easy and interesting to read as I have used a range of different examples to support my arguments. I have used APA style format for this essay.

Online Engagement:
My online engagement this semester has been satisfactory. I have commented on several students’ blog sites and have utilised my own blog as well when deciding on which blog topic to do. My contribution to the discussion board however, has been minimal, as has my use of multimedia. However, I endeavour to improve my level of online engagement in the coming weeks.

My comments on others' blogs (weeks 1-7):
http://fionabraybrooks.blogspot.com/2007_07_01_archive.html
http://socialpsychologywheretobegin.blogspot.com/2007_08_19_archive.html
http://powellpsychology.blogspot.com/2007_07_01_archive.html

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